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Analysis of the development trend of synthetic biology industry under the background of “14th Five-Year Plan” WANG Haoqi, GAO Hao, XIN Fengxue Journal of Biology    2023, 40 (3): 1-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2023.03.001 Abstract （562）      PDF       Knowledge map    Synthetic biology is revolutionizing the biotechnology industry, which is increasingly applied in natural products, medicine, energy, industry, et al. With the promulgation of the “14th Five-Year Plan” for the development of biological economy, the heat of synthetic biology, known as the “third biotechnology revolution”, is rising. Synthetic biology is poised to disrupt many traditional industries with more economical and environmentally friendly features. The industry policies of synthetic biology and the domestic synthetic biology industries in China were reviewed. The synthetic biology focused on the fields of biochemicals, biopharmaceuticals, agriculture, food, medical beauty and cosmetics, and its future development was also prospected. Related Articles | Metrics

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Bax and Bak regulate ferroptosis via Nrf2/GPX4 signaling pathway HAN Jing, ZHAO Guoping Journal of Biology    2023, 40 (3): 6-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2023.03.006 Abstract （539）      PDF       Knowledge map    Immortalized mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) with wild-type (WT), Bak/Bax double knockout (Bak/Bax-DKO), Bak knockout (Bak-KO) and Bax knockout (Bax-KO) were used to investigate the role and possible mechanisms of pro-apoptotic protein Bak/Bax on the erastin-induced ferroptosis. The survival rates and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production were determined by CCK-8 and flow cytometry, the levels of GSH/GSSG were measured by testing kits. In addition, the expression levels of target genes and proteins were detected by real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and Western Blot. The results showed that knockout Bak and Bax inhibited erastin-induced ferroptosis significantly, and the expression levels of nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) protein, glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) protein and mRNA were increased significantly in Bak/Bax-DKO cells. Further studies showed that the absence of Bax also inhibited erastin-induced ferroptosis and promoted the expression levels of GPX4. However, no significant changes on erastin-induced ferroptosis and GPX4 expression were found in Bak-KO cells. These results indicated that Bak and Bax promoted erastin-induced ferroptosis via Nrf2/GPX4 signaling pathway and Bax rather than Bak played a key role. Related Articles | Metrics

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The killing mechanism of lung cancer cells by nonthermal atmospheric pressure plasma mediated by ROS ZHOU Yuanyuan, LIU Fang, CHEN Jinwu, LIU Lei, SONG Wencheng, CHU Yannan Journal of Biology    2023, 40 (5): 1-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2023.05.001 Abstract （285）      PDF       Knowledge map    The nonthermal atmospheric plasma (NAP) was used to treat lung cancer cells H460. With the extension of NAP treatment time, MTT assay showed that NAP could decrease the cell viability of H460 significantly, JC-1 assay showed that NAP decreased the mitochondrial membrane potential of H460, which represented the occurrence of cell apoptosis. Western Blot experiment showed that NAP inhibited the expression of PI3K, AKT, JNK and STAT3, demonstrating the killing effect of NAP related to the expression of PI3K/AKT and JNK/STAT3/AKT. Besides, the addition of ROS scavenger NAC effectively eliminated the damage caused by NAP, suggesting that the killing of lung cancer H460 cells by NAP were mediated by ROS, which provided theoretical basis for the feasibility of NAP in the treatment of lung cancer. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) meal replacing soybean meal on the hepatic and intestinal health of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and mechanism exploration#br# ZHANG Le, SUN Qi, LI Weijie, WU Hongxia, QIAO Fang, DU Zhenyu, CHEN Liqiao, ZHANG Meiling Journal of Biology    2023, 40 (4): 1-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2023.04.001 Abstract （267）      PDF       Knowledge map    To evaluate the effects of yellow mealworm meal (YM) as a partial replacement for soybean meal (SBM) on the hepatic and intestinal health of fish, four groups of isonitrogenous (320 g/kg crude protein) and isoenergetic (16.8 MJ/kg) experimental diets were formulated using YM to replace 0, 15%, 30%, and 45% SBM in an SBM-based diet for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). A ten-week feeding experiment was conducted and the parameters related to the hepatic and intestinal health were analyzed. The results indicated that YM could replace 15% SBM in tilapia feed without negative effects on the hepatic and intestinal health. However, when the replacement ratio was up to 30%, decreased intestinal muscular thickness, shorter intestinal villi, lower intestinal transepithelial electrical resistance and higher mRNA expression level of tight junction protein-related genes were observed. When the replacement ratio was up to 45%, the intestinal injury was further exacerbated, and hepatic injury occurred. Hepatic injury was manifested by a significant increase in serum alanine transaminase activity, blurred hepatocyte boundaries, lipid droplet accumulation, and a significant increase in total lipids, triglycerides, non-esterified free fatty acids, and glycogen content. Transcriptome analysis revealed that genes related to glycogen synthesis and apoptosis were significantly enhanced in liver in YM45. Further analysis revealed thatklf9, an oxidative stress-related gene, was significantly upregulated in both liver and intestine, suggesting that oxidative stress occurred in YM45 group. Related Articles | Metrics

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Application of atmospheric and room temperature plasma mutagenesis in microbial and edible fungi mutation breeding LU Huan, SHEN Ling, SHANG Xiaodong, LIU Jianyu, WANG Ruijuan, YANG Hui Journal of Biology    2023, 40 (4): 92-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2023.04.092 Abstract （216）      PDF       Knowledge map    The concept, mutagenesis mechanism and factors affecting the mutagenesis effect of atmospheric and room temperature plasma (ARTP) mutagenesis were mainly described. The application of ARTP mutagenesis technology in improving microbial strains such as bacteria, actinomycetes and yeast and improving their biosynthesis ability, as well as in breeding new strains of edible fungi, was introduced in this paper with the main contents of mutagenesis breeding of microorganisms and edible fungi as the main contents. The advantages and challenges of ARTP mutagenesis technology in the breeding of microorganisms and edible fungi were analyzed. It also showed that the research focuses in the future were to improve the technical level of rapid screening of target strains combined with high-throughput sequencing, transcriptome and proteomics, to deeply explore the genetic law of microorganisms and edible fungi mutated by ARTP and the mechanism of regulating the synthesis of bioactive substances. It was hoped that the result would provide new ideas for the research of edible fungi and microbial breeding through the establishment and application of new technologies, and then promote the germplasm innovation and industrial sustainable development of microorganisms and edible fungi. Related Articles | Metrics

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Regulation of the crp gene on antibiotic biosynthesis in Pseudomonas protegens H78 NIE Chenxi, XIANG Tao, ZHANG Xuehong, HUANG Xianqing Journal of Biology    2023, 40 (3): 11-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2023.03.011 Abstract （168）      PDF       Knowledge map    The crp gene (encoding the cAMP receptor protein), as a global regulatory gene, widely exists in various bacteria and exhibits different regulatory functions in different strains. P. protegens H78 is capable of producing multiple broad-spectrum antibiotics such as pyrrolnitrin (Prn), 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (2,4-DAPG), and pyoluteorin (Plt). In order to investigate the global regulatory effect of the crp gene on the synthesis of antibiotics including Prn, 2,4-DAPG and Pltin P. protegens H78, the influences of crp gene on the synthesis and gene expression of these three antibiotics were analyzed by gene knockout, HPLC analysis, and lacZ reporter gene analysis. The results suggested that the knockout of crp gene in H78 strain significantly inhibited Prn synthesis operon (prnABCD) expression, significantly upregulated Plt production and its operon expression, and slightly down regulated 2,4-DAPG production and its operon expression. Therefore, the crp gene exhibited a significant positive regulation on Prn biosynthesis, a significant negative regulation on Plt biosynythesis, and a small positive regulation on 2,4-DAPGbiosynthesis in P. protegens H78. Related Articles | Metrics

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Teaching exploration for general education on Biomedical sensors based on OBE theory GUO Jin Journal of Biology    2023, 40 (4): 119-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2023.04.119 Abstract （165）      PDF       Knowledge map    Since most of the students who choose the course have different majors and have no biomedical background knowledge, the teaching reforms were explored based on OBE theory from four aspects including teaching objectives, contents, modes and evaluation methods in view of the actual teaching situations of general education course on biomedical sensors. The expected learning outcomes of this course was defined clearly in terms of knowledge and ability, and the teaching contents with the application cases of the commonly used medical equipment in daily life was created. Also, diversified teaching modes, including multimedia, class discussions, product showcase, laboratory visit, combined online and offline teaching were adopted to build a multi-level assessment system. This reform aimed to break through the discipline barriers, improve students’ interest in learning this course, stimulate the students' subjective initiative in knowledge exploration and expand their horizons and knowledge, thereby improving the teaching quality. Related Articles | Metrics

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Gene cloning construction method for undergraduate genetic engineering experimental course LU Yingying, FAN Weikang, WEI Youheng Journal of Biology    2023, 40 (3): 119-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2023.03.119 Abstract （157）      PDF       Knowledge map    The ccdB gene was introduced, using the Gateway system, to the vector to improve the efficiency of clone construction. The Escherichia coli transfected with vectors containing ccdB could not grow to form clones because the ccdB is toxic to it. Thus, this strategy avoided the false positive clone formation and made the plasmid construct much more convenient. Through comparison of the different strategies of clone construction, this class made students understand more on genetic engineering-related processes such as enzyme digestion, recombination, ligation. This method is suitable not only for the experimental course but also for cloning construction in future research. Related Articles | Metrics

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Arboviruses and biosafety LI Yuhan, ZHANG Xianwen, CHENG Gong Journal of Biology    2023, 40 (6): 1-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2023.06.001 Abstract （153）      PDF       Knowledge map    Introduces the main arbovirus transmission vectors and the significant infectious diseases they have caused in human society then describes the prevalence of several important arboviruses and conducts a risk analysis of novel biotechnologies as well as emerging and re-emerging arboviral diseases. Moreover the article discusses the strategies employed by humans to prevent and control arboviruses and highlights the current technological challenges. This review aims to enhance public awareness of arboviruses and the biosafety issues they cause and to explore future research directions in the field of infectious disease prevention and control. It also urges the relevant authorities to expedite the development of laws and policies to address potential arboviral infectious disease epidemics. Related Articles | Metrics

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Teaching design of the experiment “screening for anti-inflammatory agents by detection of pyroptosis based on a high content screening model” #br# RUAN Banfeng, CHEN Liuzeng, WU Ke, ZHANG Min Journal of Biology    2023, 40 (4): 127-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2023.04.127 Abstract （150）      PDF       Knowledge map    The teaching design of the experiment “screening for anti-inflammatory agents by detection of pyroptosis based on a high content screening model” was mainly introduced for the national college student innovation and entrepreneurship training program. Based on the theory of NLRP3 inflammasome activation leading to cell pyroptosis, the high content screening model was used to count the pyroptosis cells to determine the anti-inflammatory activity of the tested compound. The experimental results indicated that when NLRP3 inflammasomes were activated, cells underwent pyroptosis. PI could stain red fluorescence on pyroptosis cells, while the Hoechst 33342 could stain blue fluorescence on all cells. High content screening was used to count the cells with different fluorescence, the ratio was then used to determine the anti-inflammatory activity of the tested compound. The experiment combined the PI/Hoechst 33342 staining with high content screening, which could solve the problems of insufficient teaching funds, poor experimental conditions and so on. The experiment was convenient with low cost, the experimental results were intuitive and students could deeply, systematically and comprehensively understand the characteristics of the principle of pyroptosis. Thus, students who participated in the related innovation and entrepreneurship project of college students could further understand the basic process of new drug research and development while mastered the basic experimental skills of cell biology, effectively cultivated students' awareness of innovation and entrepreneurship and scientific literacy. Related Articles | Metrics

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Glutamine synthetase regulates autophagy to improve radiotherapy sensitivity in hepatocellular carcinoma cells HE Yuan, QIAN Junchao Journal of Biology    2023, 40 (5): 6-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2023.05.006 Abstract （148）      PDF       Knowledge map    The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship among radiotherapy sensitivity, glutamine synthetase (GS) and autophagy in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells. After X-ray irradiation, CCK-8 and colony formation assay were used to measure the proliferation of HepG2 cells treated with GS inhibitor (L-methionine sulfonimide, MSO). Real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR and protein immunoblotting assays (Western Blot, WB) were used to detect the effect of MSO on GS expression, and GS activity assay kits were used to detect the efficiency of inhibition of GS activity by MSO. Monodansulfonyl cadaverine (MDC) staining as well as WB assay techniques were used to detect intracellular autophagy to determine the effect of IR and MSO on autophagy. The results indicated that MSO caused an increase in intracellular GS expression, but GS activity was significantly inhibited. In addition, MSO reduced the proliferative capacity of cells after radiotherapy and inhibited radiotherapy-induced autophagy. Results suggested that MSO could enhance the sensitivity of HepG2 cells to radiotherapy by inhibiting GS activity, which was closely related to its regulation of autophagic flow. Related Articles | Metrics

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Development of rAAV5 anion exchange chromatography process XU Lin, LIANG Huanhuan, LI Hongying, HAN Xu, DAI Liubing, MA Chao, ZHU Tao Journal of Biology    2023, 40 (4): 107-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2023.04.107 Abstract （147）      PDF       Knowledge map    A purification method was established for effectively increasing the proportion between vector capsids of rAAV5-a viral product containing the therapeutic DNA sequence and empty capsids, viral vectors lacking the therapeutic gene. For the rAAV5 samples obtained from affinity chromatography, several anion exchange chromatography and related gradient elution methods were tested, in which CIMmultus QA (CIMQ) can effectively remove empty capsids from vector capsids. For the CIMQ purification, the buffer matrix and the collection of rAAV5 fractions were optimized. Subsequently, qPCR was used to quantify the recovery rate of the virus genome (Vg) content, and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) or size exclusion chromatography-multi-angle static light scattering (SEC-MALS) was used to determine the vector capsids proportion of rAAV5 samples. In the CIMQ purification process, the proportion of vector capsids in the collected fraction (at UV absorbance UV260/UV280 greater than 1) eluted with Tris-Na2HPO4buffer at pH 8.0 reached 80.3%. A simple and convenient method using anion exchange chromatography was successfully established, which can effectively eliminate empty capsids of rAAV5 from vector capsids so that vector capsids proportion can meet the requirements of clinical application of gene therapy. Related Articles | Metrics

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Green separation and purification of high purity vitamin K2 MA Guoliang, ZHENG Zhiming, WANG Peng, WANG Li, ZHAO Genhai, WANG Han Journal of Biology    2023, 40 (3): 107-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2023.03.107 Abstract （145）      PDF       Knowledge map    In order to overcome the shortcomings of high purity Vitamin K2 extraction process, such as large amount of toxic solvent, serious pollution and toxic substance residues, a green separation and purification process of high purity Vitamin K2 was established. Natural oil, methanol, ethanol and other organic reagents were used to extract VK2 from Bacillus natto. The results showed that medium chain triglyceride had the best extraction effect, and the maximum extraction amount was 2.7 mg/g. Seven types of macroporous resins were used to separate VK2 from medium chain triglyceride solvent phase, and the optimal macroporous resin HC-200S was selected by static adsorption and desorption experiments. The dynamic adsorption and desorption process of macroporous resin was optimized, and the dynamic desorption curve of macroporous resin was drawn. The results showed that when the adsorption flow rate of sample solution was 2.0 mL/min, the desorption agent was anhydrous ethanol/butyl acetate mixture solution (1∶2, volume ratio) and the flow rate of desorption agent was 1.0 mL/min, the adsorption and desorption effect of HC-200S macroporous resin on VK2 was the best. At this time, the purity of vitamin K2 was 4 times higher than that of the before purification, reaching 87.8%, and the recovery rate reached 93.1%. VK2 desorption solutions obtained by resin separation and purification were frozen crystallization and solvent volatilization crystallization, respectively, to obtain VK2 crystals with purity of 96.7% and 97.1%. This study provided a method basis for the industrial production and green separation and purification of VK2. Related Articles | Metrics

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Construction and practice of consolidated progressive experimental teaching of animal-cell primary culture#br# PAN Qian, LI Haoqi, LIU Jinyi, HU Boqi, YANG Huikun, CHEN Wang Journal of Biology    2023, 40 (4): 123-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2023.04.123 Abstract （137）      PDF       Knowledge map    The experiment of animal-cell primary culture for undergraduates was reformed in order to solve the problems of students’ low success rate and insufficient training of abilities in traditional experimental teaching. Accordingly, a consolidated progressive experimental teaching mode was constructed and practiced. Aseptic technique and primary culture by enzymatic disaggregation, these important and widely applicated technologies, were practiced a lot. Primary culture by explantation and immunocytochemistry was phased to deepen the experiment teaching. Beyond that, students carried out the autonomous protocol designs, which were increasingly difficult. Extensibility, depth, comprehensiveness and design, therefore, were increased progressively with experiments. Students’ experiment results and survey results about the teaching effect showed that this consolidated progressive experimental teaching mode effectively enhanced their success rate. Their abilities, including practice, cooperation, analysis/solution of problems, exploration and innovation, were strengthened. It effectively solved the above issues in traditional experimental teaching and correspondingly improved the quality of experimental teaching. Related Articles | Metrics

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Marine biotechnology for the “blue seed industry” QIN Song, SUN Lin, WANG Yajun, LIU Zhengyi, WANG Yinchu, ZHANG Jian Journal of Biology    2024, 41 (1): 1-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2024.01.001 Abstract （132）      PDF       Knowledge map    The article reviews the theoretical and practical innovations of marine biotechnology in China over the past 30 years, from the perspective of the cutting across development of China’s “blue seed industry”. It also analyses the international development trends and the urgent needs for the sustainable and healthy development of China’s mariculture industry, and concludes that regionally responsive precision breeding for global changes is the direction of marine biotechnology for “blue agriculture” in the coming decade. Related Articles | Metrics

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Exploration and practice of ideological and political education in synthetic biology curriculum WANG Dongmei, HONG Jiong Journal of Biology    2023, 40 (3): 124-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2023.03.124 Abstract （130）      PDF       Knowledge map    根据合成生物学课程的教学内容践行课程思政教学，明确教学目标，通过科学设计和教学实施，将课程中蕴含的思政元素有机融入相关的教学内容。注重学思结合，知行统一，实现对学生的正确价值观的塑造、知识的传授和能力的培养，从而激发学生科技报国的家国情怀和使命担当。在课程思政实施过程中，教师课程思政建设的意识和能力也得到了提升，加强了自身德育修养，打造了师生双赢的局面，为构建大思政格局作出初步的探索和实践。 Related Articles | Metrics

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The role of Dof transcription factors in crop stress response and agronomic trait improvement #br# WANG Zemin, JIN Xin, ZHANG Feiyan, SI Huaijun Journal of Biology    2023, 40 (4): 98-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2023.04.098 Abstract （124）      PDF       Knowledge map    The molecular mechanisms of DNA-binding with one finger (Dof) transcription factors in crop response to stress such as extreme temperature, drought and salt stress, and their important roles in agronomic trait improvement were analyzed. Combined with the effects of different abiotic stresses on plant growth and development, the signal sensing mode and signal transduction pathway of Dof transcription factors in crop response to stress were introduced. The regulation mechanism of Dof transcription factors and the action mode of stress tolerance and important secondary metabolites (RFOs, etc.) during the regulation of gene expression were analyzed. Moreover, from the perspective of multi-signal network regulation mechanism and the demand of global climate change for sustainable and high-quality crop production, the prospects and directions of further research and utilization of Dof transcription factors in crop bio-breeding were prospected. Related Articles | Metrics

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Antigastric cancer activity of Streptomyces sp. LRE-541 secondary metabolite from Lilium davidii var. unicolor Cotton CHEN Bin, JIANG Kan, GUO Yehong, MA Aiai Journal of Biology    2023, 40 (3): 28-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2023.03.028 Abstract （123）      PDF       Knowledge map    n order to study the secondary metabolites of Streptomyces sp. LRE-541 from the roots of Lilium davidii var. unicolor Cotton and its antigastric cancer activity, high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and other methods were used to isolate, purify and identify the secondary metabolites. The effects of metabolites on cell proliferation, apoptosis and migration of gastric cancer cell HGC-803 were investigated. Two anthraquinones were identified as 4-deoxy-ε-pyrromycinone (1) and epsilon-pyrromycinone (2). The IC50 of compound 1 and compound 2 against gastric cancer cell of HGC-803 were (25.24±1.23) μg/mL and (17.29±2.28) μg/mL, respectively. Under the same treatment, compared with blank control group, the proliferation rate, apoptosis rate and scratch healing rate of cancer cells in 15 and 25 μg/mL of compound 1 and 10 and 20 μg/mL of compound 2 groups were significantly decreased, the differences were statistically significant (P<0.05 or P<0.01). These results indicated that the two compounds could inhibit the proliferation and migration of gastric cancer of HGC-803 cells and promote the apoptosis of gastric cancer cells, which might be potential as anti-gastric cancer drugs or precursors. Related Articles | Metrics

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Isolation and identification of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus variant strain and establishment of challenge model JIAO Anqi, GUO Xiaozhen, CHEN Zhi, YU Jiang, YU Kejian, LU Xiaohan, XIN Zhonghao, HAN Xianjie, WU Jiaqiang Journal of Biology    2023, 40 (3): 69-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2023.03.069 Abstract （122）      PDF       Knowledge map    Porcine epidemic diarrhea (PED) is an acute contact intestinal infectious disease in pigs caused by the porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV). In this study, a PEDV strain was isolated and named PEDV-20200946. S protein gene was sequenced and analyzed, and the phylogenetic tree showed that the isolated strain belonged to G2 genotype. The virus titer of this strain was 106.1TCID50/mL determined by Reed-Muench method. Subsequently, the pathogenicity of the isolated strains on piglets was further explored through animal challenge. A total of twelve 20-day-old piglets were divided into three groups on average, and they were named oral group, oral and intramuscular injection group, and control group, respectively. After the viral infection, clinical symptoms were observed, and the feces of each group and the intestines of the affected pigs were collected 72 h later for RT-PCR detection and immunohistochemical analysis. The results showed that piglets in the oral and intramuscular injection group showed the fastest diarrhea occurrence, followed by the oral group, and the control did not have any clinical symptoms. Autopsy examination showed that the intestinal walls of diseased piglets got thinned, their intestines were swollen, and contained a large amount of yellow liquid. Immunohistochemical tests showed that a large number of PEDV positive signals could be detected in the small intestine of piglets in the challenge groups, while the control group showed normal. The piglet challenge model of PEDV-20200946 strain was established, which laid a foundation for in-depth study of the molecular characteristics of PEDV epidemic strains and the development of attenuated vaccines. Related Articles | Metrics

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Mechanisms controlling the development of pathogen-induced galls in plants ZHENG Liwen, ZHANG Shenshen, ZHANG Jingtong, GUO Deping Journal of Biology    2023, 40 (3): 96-.   DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1736.2023.03.096 Abstract （122）      PDF       Knowledge map    The recent advances of pathogen-plant interactions to form galls are reviewed, which focuses on pathogenesis and influencing factors of gall formation of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, insects and nematodes. The disturbance of the phytohormonal balance and the acquisition of meristematic characteristics by differentiated cells are shared causes of gall formation in host plants. Some pathogens manipulate host plant development by secreting effector proteins, benefiting themselves at the expense of the plant growth and reproduction, which results in the formation of galls. Further research fields are suggested. Related Articles | Metrics